Ethnic groups were portrayed in the media Essay Example for Free

Ethnic groups were portrayed in the media Essay During the course of looking at education, and ethnicity issues I became interested in how ethnic groups were portrayed in the media. Although I havent studied this before, I wanted to do something different, but still apply the fundamental theories which I have studied. I have noticed how there seems to be a trend with all areas involving ethnicity, and personally feel there is racism and under-representation of ethnic groups on television, and definitely inequalities in the press. The media has a huge effect on our perception of life and self-concepts, and reinforce stereotypical ideals, and it seems that ethnic minorities tend to be characterised as uneducated, illiterate and bad role-models. Therefore the aim of this research is to see how people feel about the way the media represents all ethnic groups, and whether they think they are stereotypical. My first concept is the cultural effects model which sees the media as a very powerful influence, but also sees it as very diverse, and one type of audiences response may vary to another. However, there is an anticipated response, known as the preferred reading. Those who lack experience in cultural diversity are more likely to accept what is shown and therefore make generalisations from what they see to what they think. Therefore we make generalisations or stereotypical views of different members of society. This is my second concept. A stereotype is a conventional image of a person or group. Stereotypes generally conform to a pattern of dress or behaviour. A BBC news article entitled How entertainment changed: the media and multicultural Britain addressing how the media has changed over time and gives statistics from a recent survey to the public, to their (ethnic minorities) opinions on how they are represented in the media, and also how the overall public view the medias representations. The results were promising inasmuch as the public suggested there was improvement. However, there is apparently, still a lingering feeling that Britain has a long way to go before its multiculturalism is represented properly and effectively in the media. This is relevant to the point of research since it discusses how society is responding to what the media is involving, and if it is improving or not. Since there is such a dynamic response, it suggests that stereotypes do exist, and that there has been negative representation of ethnic groups. It also gives evidence to suggest that this representation has caused a problem it has effected audience perception of sub-cultures in society. We come to expect certain behaviour or values without looking at the bigger picture, through which the media tends to overlook. The third concept is racism. The belief that race accounts for differences in human character or ability and that a particular race is superior to others is racism. The contextual research included in this is; Racism and the press by Van Dijk in 1991. Here he analyses the reporting of ethnic issues in 1985 1989, in which the press, (especially the tabloids) portrayed black people as a problem and a threat to mainstream society. The collected findings of both pieces of research generally give a depressing reading. Under-representation and stereotypical characterisation within entertainment genres and negative, problem-orientated portrayal within factuality and news forms, and a tendency to ignore structural inequalities are recurring research findings when looking into the media.

Public Health Issue: Alcohol Misuse

Public Health Issue: Alcohol Misuse Alcohol misuse as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) is the alcohol use that places people at risk for problems, including at-risk use, clinical alcohol abuse, and dependence. Although the use of alcohol brings with it a number of pleasures, alcohol increases the risk of a wide range of social harms, generally in a dose dependent manner (WHO 2011). Alcohol misuse is one of the most devastating non-communicable deceases that contributes, or directly causes chronic ill-health, high mortality, violent crime, and anti-social behaviour (Alcohol Concern, 1997). According to the global status report on alcohol and health published in 2011 by World Health Organisation (WHO), the harmful use of alcohol results in 2.5 million deaths each year globally (WHO 2011). According to the same report, by 2011, alcohol misuse is the worlds third largest risk factor for disease burden, and it is the leading risk factor in the Western Pacific and the Americas and the second largest in Europe. Alcohol is associated with many serious social and developmental issues, including violence, child neglect and abuse, and absenteeism in the workplace (Harvey, 2000). Excessive alcohol consumption is a major cause of different types of diseases and conditions, including injuries, mental and behavioural disorders, gastrointestinal conditions, cancers, cardiovascular diseases, immunological disorders, lung diseases, skeletal and muscular diseases, reproductive disorders and pre-natal harm, including an increased risk of prematurity and low birth weight (Moore and, Pearson, 1986). For most conditions, alcohol increases the risk in a dose dependent manner, with the higher the alcohol consumption, the greater the risk. For some conditions, such as cardiomyopathy, acute respiratory distress syndrome and muscle damage, harm appears only to result from a sustained level of high alcohol consumption, but even at high levels, alcohol increases the risk and severity of these conditions in a dose dependent manner. The frequency and volume of episodic heavy drinking are of particular importance for increasing the risk of injuries and certain cardiovascular dise ases (Moore and Pearson 1986). The causes of alcohol misuse can be traced to many factors including family history, psychological factors such as anxiety or depression, the addictive pharmacology of alcohol, and the environment in which people live. Some research works show that genes could influence people drinking habits and their susceptibility to alcohol addiction. For others who drink alcohol above the guidelines, at hazardous and harmful levels, alcohol misuse may be due to habit, lifestyle, lack of awareness of the health effects and an absence of obvious symptoms. This assignment seeks to discuss the problems associated with alcohol misuse, and the collective efforts currently being put in place in term of research and government policies to address it. The understanding of local, national and global trends of alcohol misuse and the associated deceases will be demonstrated using the available statistical data from the Public Health Observatory. Following the introductory section, where background of alcohol misuse, the justification for chosen it, and the importance of alcohol misuse as a public health concern are provided, Section 2 will discuss the epidemiology and trends of alcohol misuse. In Section 3, the social determinants of alcohol misuse will be explored, while Section 4 will address how the issues and problems of alcohol misuses are tackled at both national and global level. Section 5 will be devoted to the local public health. Specifically, the problems associated with alcohol misuse in Bradford will be discussed. The last section will provide some recommendations and strategies to address the issue of alcohol misuse. Methodology The research methods used for this assignment included reviewing poster, televisions adverts, internet research on alcoholism and journals. The main website was the national institute of alcohol abuse, but others included healthy living, NHS Stockport. These research methods were very useful as they provided a wealth of information which resulted in a through investigation in to alcoholism and the effects on an individuals lifestyle 2. Epidemiology of Alcohol Misuse The alcohol misuse is a global phenomenon, which hinders both individual and social development. On a global level, World Health Organization (WHO 2011) reported that: The harmful use of alcohol results in 2.5 million deaths each year. 320 000 young people between the age of 15 and 29 die from alcohol-related causes, resulting in 9% of all deaths in that age group. Alcohol is the worlds third largest risk factor for disease burden; it is the leading risk factor in the Western Pacific and the Americas and the second largest in Europe. Researchers in numerous countries have conducted analyses of alcohol consumption and general population surveys to ascertain the level and consequences of alcohol use. In recent years, investigators also have made attempts to compare drinking rates and other drinking variables across different countries. One reason for researching across national borders is the need for descriptive epidemiology (Room and Makela1988). The total economic cost of alcohol to the EU was estimated to be à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬125 billion (WHO Europe, 2009), while the government of United Kingdom estimated the cost of alcohol related harms to the National Health Service (NHS) to be  £2.7 billion in 2006/07 prices (NHS 2012). Alcohol consumption is a major cause of ill-health in England. More than 10 million people (31 per cent of men and 20 per cent of women) are now regularly drinking above the guidelines set by Government (NAO, 2008), and many of these are likely to suffer ill-health or injury as a result. In England, it is estimated that 18 per cent of the adult population (7.6 million) are drinking at hazardous levels; another seven per cent (2.9 million) are showing evidence of harm to their own physical and mental health, including approximately 1.1 million people who have a level of alcohol addiction (NAO, 2008). Social Determinant on Health Alcohol use and abuse is a major preventable public health problem. To be able to do this, we must be able to understand the social determinant of alcohol misuse and abuse. Different factors such as gender difference, race, culture, ethnicity, social class, poverty levels are among the most important factors that have been found to influence the level of alcohol consumption. According to the research findings reported in the Alcohol Needs Assessment Research Project (ANARP), 2004, about 38% of men and 16% of women (age 16-64) have an alcohol use disorder , which is equivalent to approximately 8.2 million people in England. It has also been reported in the literature that alcohol use disorders generally decline with age. In relation to ethnicity, black and minority ethnic groups have a considerably lower prevalence of hazardous/harmful alcohol use but a similar prevalence of alcohol dependence compared with the white population (ANARP, 2004). Another important social determinant of alcohol misuse is the family background. The family plays a central role in the use of alcohol by children and adolescents. Early drinking and much subsequent use of alcohol by children and adolescents is sanctioned and sometimes encouraged by their families. Unlike experimentation with alcohol, problem drinking is associated with low levels of family social support and with dysfunctional coping strategies of families that may lead children to use drinking as an adaptive behavior. Addressing Alcohol Misuse Issues The harmful use of alcohol is a serious health burden, and it affects virtually all individuals on an international scale. Both the government policy (NHS) and the scientific literature have recognized the necessity to control the general populations alcohol consumption. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), the global strategy to control the misuse of alcohol will focuses on ten key areas of policy options and interventions at the national level and four priority areas for global action. The ten areas for national action are summarized as follows: Leadership, awareness and commitment; Health services response; Community action; Drink-driving policies and countermeasures; Availability of alcohol; Marketing of alcoholic beverages; Pricing policies; Reducing the negative consequences of drinking and alcohol intoxication; Reducing the public health impact of illicit alcohol and informally produced alcohol; Monitoring and surveillance. The four priority areas for global action are: public health advocacy and partnership; technical support and capacity building; production and dissemination of knowledge; resource mobilization At national level, Government policy continues to place emphasis on the primary care setting to undertake health promotion. Prior to 1995, the sensible drinking policy in the UK was that men should drink no more than 21 units (168 g) and women 14 units (112 g) per week (Department of Health 1992). However, by 1995, the Department of Health in UK has put in place guidelines for the responsible consumption of alcohol (UK Department of Health 1995). The comparison of UK units/day and grams of pure alcohol/day in light/moderate/heavy drinking is summarized in Table 1. Table 1: comparison of UK units/day and grams of pure alcohol/day in light/moderate/heavy drinking Local Public Health Of most concern to public health is the number of local people drinking excessively. In this work, the public health of Bradford will be discussed. National data suggests around 20,000 residents of the Bradford district are dependent drinkers. According to the Bradford and Airedale Health and Lifestyle Survey 2007-2008, the national average consumption in Bradford district is significantly greater than the national average. In all adult, the mean units alcohol consumed by drinkers in a typical week in Bradford is 23% for men and 14.5% for woman as compared to national average of 21% for men and 11% for woman (BJSNA 2010). The Bradford and Airedale Healthy Lifestyle Survey (BJSNA 2010) shows that 9% of men and 7% of women are drinking at a harmful (higher risk) level. For men, this finding is in line with the national average; for women, the finding as nearly double (England 4%). Amongst men, this problem is concentrated in the 35-64 age groups; amongst women, the under 24s and 45-54s exceed the district average. Recommendations and Strategies Current Strategies There have been various current strategies currently being put in place both by the local and national government. Some of the current strategies are aimed to: reduce the number of people who drink alcohol above recommended limits, thus reducing the adverse health impact of alcohol. reduce alcohol-related crime, disorder, intimidation, nuisance and anti-social behaviour. develop a comprehensive range of effective treatment, support, rehabilitation and reintegration services for alcohol victims, with easy access and clear care pathways. reduce the harm caused by alcohol misuse within families and relationships, including domestic abuse and the hidden harms caused to the children of alcohol- misusing parents. reduce the number of babies born with a disorder in the Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder range, and to decrease the risk of related problems experienced by children born with one of these disorders. reduce alcohol-related accidents and fires, thus reducing avoidable premature death, disability and less serious injuries. reduce the economic costs of alcohol misuse. ensure that information and services are accessible and welcoming to all sections of Bradfords diverse population. Recommendations In other to address the problem of alcohol misuse at local, national, and global level, the following recommendations are provided: Education is on of the general way to address the issue of alcohol misuse. Government can make sure that all local schools have programs in place to educate children about the risks posed by alcohol misuse. It is important to arm young people in community with knowledge about the consequences of abusing drink and drugs. Government at both local and national level should fund youth clubs, art facilities and other activities to give young people alternative things to do instead of spending time on the streets drinking. The general practitioners as well as nursing practitioners should continue to provide better support/consultancy services to the victims of alcohol. Provision of support group at different localities to provide improved counselling services and treatment programs for those with substance abuse problems in the community. Discussion should be established with schools, colleges, local employers, government and policy makers to see if they have any facilities in place to identify and help those struggling with alcohol misuse. Conclusion The public health issues on alcohol misuse are discussed in this work. Alcohol misuse is found to be one of the most devastating non-communicable deceases that contributes, or directly causes chronic ill-health, high mortality, violent crime, and anti-social behavior. The epidemiology and trends of alcohol misuse was discussed, while the social determinants of alcohol misuse based on gender difference, age, ethnicity, and family background was addressed. The policies put in place by both the local and national government to address the issues and problems of alcohol misuses are assessed. The last section provided some recommendations and strategies to address the issue of alcohol misuse.

Profiling Essay -- Legal Issues, Ethics

One area of psychology and investigation, (an occupation? or shall I say craft?), many ways to refer and interpret it, with a complex past intermingling various areas of study, Profiling, like any other area of study, has both its advantages and disadvantages. Yet, how useful is it as an investigative tool? It certainly isn’t considered as a hard science, however this does not mean that is should be discarded and not taken seriously. Or does it? I say advantages and disadvantages, because whilst my personal position is towards profiling in general, it can only be used in conjunction with other, more deeply studied police work. Here I will discuss mainly its advantages and why I hold the position in favor of criminal profiling, but some disadvantages will obviously be mention in relation the advantages. As asserted by Wilson and Seaman (2007), one of the first psychological profilers was James A. Brussel, M.D in the 1950, then dubbed â€Å"The Sherlock Holmes of the Couch.† Although he was very accurate in providing the police with a profile of the criminal which helped them locate and arrest the Mad Bomber, using primarily his handwriting on letters sent to the police, his â€Å"technique was not enough in itself to change traditional law enforcement procedures.† (Wilson and Seaman, 2007). It was only in the early 1970s that the FBI Behavioral Science Unit in Quantico decided to use this profiling technique when investigating violent crimes. Here, they would profile the type of criminal involved using the crime scene itself and the various criminal MOs. Their initial investigation using this method was held in 1974 with the case of the kidnapped seven-year old girl, Susan Jaeger. Profilers predicted the kidnapper being a young, whi... ...nalytical Theory. Turvey (2001) points of the voyeurism problem and affirms that this fact alone might be a magnet for so-called profilers to join the field. This, of course, will create problems for all involved in the case. Here, another setback to profiling is formed which might reduce the profiler’s ‘expertise’, for how can on be certain of the real intention of a profiler and his compatibility to the team? Having said all this, one can say that in reality, profiling is an art and not a science, as â€Å"by itself, a profile does not solve any crime† (Holmes and Holmes, 2009). That is, however, not said to reduce all its credibility and usefulness. Profilers have helped the police and it most likely that will continue to do so in the future, but it must be kept strictly as an aid and not as the only means. But yes, all in all, it is a useful investigative tool.

Executive Summary :: essays research papers

In our business world we have to provide quality atmosphere service to our customers. The purpose for this introduction is to explain how we treat our internal and external customers in order to provide satisfaction. The base of this executive summary will be on where we work at with our current employer or former.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The information collected for this executive summary will be on my last employer. My former employer was Eppies Restaurant. Mainly this small business was in Madera California. Now that we addressed the company, we now can adopt quality principles in theory for my former employer Eppies Restaurant. As I stated in the past, Eppies Restaurant has been open for several years until they closed recently. Since Eppies Restaurant is a food service industry, I can tell you from experience, that it can be very stressful for employees.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We as managers must understand that not just people from the community is our customers, but also our employees are too, and business partners, suppliers etc. For example, we have owners (managers), waitress, busboys, dishwashers, cooks; these were the employees who worked at Eppies Restaurant. Employers have always have choices about how they want their business run, but today managers must be more user friendly. Since business runs a cycle one company relieves on other companies services, this would be an external customer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Eppies Restaurant had many external customers. For example, we had M& D services they deliver meat and other products. Then we had Rainbow and they deliver bread. We also had a Towel Service they would wash our towels that we use to clean the restaurant. And finally the soda industry and dishwasher industry that supplies their product to any fast food companies. They all provide a service. Eppies Restaurant would buy an extra order for their product and in return they would get a discount. Finally we have our customers who buy our foods. The fast food industry can be very busy especially mothers day. We get anger customers because foods are brought late. The service is bad and seating customers has a big affect on our service to the community. The lesson learned steps in. This also applies for internal employees who work to provide the quality service.

Indigenous People :: essays research papers

Indigenous People Indigenous people are those that are native to an area. Throughout the world, there are many groups or tribes of people that have been taken over by the Europeans in their early conquests throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by immigrating groups of individuals, and by greedy corporate businesses trying to take their land. The people indigenous to Australia, Brazil and South America, and Hawaii are currently fighting for their rights as people: the rights to own land, to be free from prejudice, and to have their lands protected from society. Indigenous People of Brazil and South America The people indigenous to Brazil and South America are an extremely noteworthy group. The Brazilian population originally derives from four ethnic sources. From the beginning, the country has been a mixture of many "races" of people. Of these, are the native Indians, the colonizing Portuguese, the enslaved African blacks, and the various immigrant groups from Europe and Asia. Many of the indigenous tribes are quarreling with Brazil's officials and businesses. Rainforests are depleting at a rapid rate and, as they are a home to many indigenous tribes, is causing great turmoil. Although the Constitution of 1988 claims to recognize the indians' "original land rights to the lands they traditionally occupy" and promise that these lands will be "demarcated" and "protected", the Government Agency Funai is charged with the demarcation of of nearly fifty percent of the lands(PeaceNet). The report claims that, "in reality, most most indian lands whether demarcated or not are coveted for some form of development." This claim is substantiated by the fact that "mineral concessions have been made on fifty-eight percent of all demarcated indian lands, while thirteen percent are affected by hydroelectric projects," (PeaceNet) The link between global environmental change and the rights of indigenous populations results from the close relationship between indigenous people's cultural and economic situations and their environmental settings. Therefore, if the environment of the native Indians of Brazil continues to be changed and removed, the people born on these lands will be exterminated out of existence. Additionally, many societal views of the indigenous people is killing them. The Amnesty International report, as commented upon by PeaceNet cites one occasion in which a thirty-five year old Macuxi Indian by the name of Damiao M endes was found lying face down on a muddy riverbank, shot in the neck. Nearby lay his nineteen year-old nephew, murdered by the same means.

Law and People Settings Essay

1.1 A duty of care in my own role is a legal obligation on me requiring me to adhere to a reasonable standard of care while performing acts of care. 1.2 I have a legal and professional duty of care. If I was to neglect someone and this caused them harm then a court of law could find me negligent and stop me working in care or impose sanctions on me and this is how duty of care contributes to safeguarding individuals. 2.1 There are a few potential dilemmas that can arise in care work for example individual’s rights, a person’s individual rights and dignity should be respected at all times so in a end of life situation I may wish to administer lifesaving support but can only do this with the individuals consent. Another example is if a carer does not believe in organ transplantation or blood transfusion because of their culture they would still be required to support a client who had been prescribed this type of treatment. 2.2 Conflicts and dilemmas should be dealt with by the most senior manager in charge at that time. The person in charge may delegate responsibilities to carers if appropriate but they will first identify and assess the issues and devise strategies to deal with them. 2.3 To get advice and support about conflicts and dilemmas you can talk to managers, senior carers, social workers, registering authority and other colleagues. CT236 Principles for implementing duty of care in health, social care or children’s and young people’s settings. 3.1 In the event of a complaint I would follow procedures and try and put the matter right. Ask for the complaint to be put into writing to help us avoid the same situation arising again and look into the complaint thoroughly, fairly and honestly. Dealing with it with confidentiality and politely. Give an apology if required and explain how the situation will be put right. 3.2 Agreed procedures for handling complaints are to deal with the complaint fairly, honestly, confidentially, promptly and resolve the issues effectively and appropriately.

The Unhealthy Chesapeake

The Unhealthy Chesapeake Life in the American wilderness was harsh. Diseases like malaria, dysentery, and typhoid killed many. Few people lived to 40 or 50 years. In the early days of colonies, women were so scarce that men fought over all of them. The Chesapeake region had fewer women and a 6:1 male to female ratio is a good guide. Few people knew any grandparents. A third of all brides in one Maryland county were already pregnant before the wedding (scandalous). Virginia, with 59,000 people, became the most populous colony. II. The Tobacco Economy The Chesapeake was very good for tobacco cultivation. Chesapeake Bay exported 1. 5 million pounds of tobacco yearly in the 1630s, and by 1700, that number had risen to 40 million pounds a year. More availability led to falling prices, and farmers still grew more. The headright system encouraged growth of the Chesapeake. Under this system, if an aristocrat sponsored an indentured servant’s passage to America, the aristocrat earned the right to purchase 50 acres land, undoubtedly at a cheap price. This meant land was being gobbled by the rich, and running out for the poor. Early on, most of the laborers were indentured servants. Life for them was hard, but there was hope at the end of seven years for freedom. Conditions were brutal, and in the later years, owners unwilling to free their servants extended their contracts by years for small mistakes. III. Frustrated Freemen and Bacon’s Rebellion By the late 1600s, there were lots of free, poor, landless, single men frustrated by the lack of money, land, work, and women. In 1676, Nathaniel Bacon led a few thousand of these men in a rebellion against the hostile conditions. These people wanted land and were resentful of Virginia governor William Berkeley’s friendly policies toward the Indians. Bacon’s men murderously attacked Indian settlements after Berkeley refused to retaliate for a series of savage Indian attacks on the frontier. Then, in the middle of his rebellion, Bacon suddenly died of disease, and Berkeley went on to crush the uprising. Still, Bacon’s legacy lived on, giving frustrated poor folks ideas to rebel, and so a bit of paranoia went on for some time afterwards. IV. Colonial Slavery In the 300 years following Columbus’ discovery of America, only about 400,000 of a total of 10 million African slaves were brought over to the United States. By 1680, though, many landowners were afraid of possibly mutinous white servants, by the mid 1680s, for the first time, black slaves outnumbered white servants among the plantation colonies’ new arrivals. After 1700, more and more slaves were imported, and in 1750, blacks accounted for nearly half of the Virginian population. Most of the slaves were from West Africa, from places like Senegal and Angola. Some of the earliest black slaves gained their freedom and some became slaveholders themselves. Eventually, to clear up issues on slave ownership, the slave codes made it so that slaves and their children would remain slaves to their masters for life (chattels), unless they were voluntarily freed. Some laws made teaching slaves to read a crime, and not even conversion to Christianity might qualify a slave for freedom. V. Africans in America Slave life in the Deep South was very tough, as rice growing was much harder than tobacco growing. Many blacks in America evolved their own languages, blending their native tongues with English. Blacks also contributed to music with instruments like the banjo and bongo drum. A few of the slaves became skilled artisans (i. e. carpenters, bricklayers and tanners), but most were relegated to sweaty work like clearing swamps and grubbing out trees. Revolts did occur. In 1712, a slave revolt in New York City cost the lives of a dozen whites and 21 Blacks were executed. In 1739, South Carolina blacks along the Stono River revolted and tried to march to Spanish Florida, but failed. VI. Southern Society A social gap appeared and began to widen. In Virginia, a clutch of extended clans (i. e. the Fitzhughs, the Lees, and the Washingtons) owned tracts and tracts of real estate and just about dominated the House of Burgesses. They came to be known as the First Families of Virginia (FFV). In Virginia, there was often a problem with drunkenness. The largest social group was the farmers. Few cities sprouted in the South, so schools and churches were slow to develop. VII. The New England Family In New England, there was clean water and cool temperatures, so disease was not as predominant as in the South. The first New England Puritans had an average life expectancy of 70 years. In contrast to the Chesapeake, the New Englanders tended to migrate as a family, instead of individually. Women usually married in their early twenties and gave birth every two years until menopause. A typical woman could expect to have ten babies and raise about eight of them. Death in childbirth was not uncommon. In the South, women usually had more power, since the Southern men typically died young and women could inherit the money, but in New England, the opposite was true. In New England, men didn’t have absolute power over their wives (as evidenced by the punishments of unruly husbands), but they did have much power over women. New England law was very severe and strict. For example, adulterous women had to wear the letter â€Å"A† on their bosoms if they were caught (as with The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne). VIII. Life in the New England Towns Life in New England was organized. New towns were legally chartered by colonial authorities. A town usually had a meetinghouse surrounded by houses and a village green. Towns of more than 50 families had to provide primary education. Towns of more than 100 had to provide secondary education. In 1636, Massachusetts Puritans established Harvard College to train men to become ministers. (Note: in 1693, Virginia established their first college, William and Mary. ) Puritans ran their own churches, and democracy in Congregational church government led logically to democracy in political government. IX. The Half-Way Covenant and the Salem Witch Trials As Puritans began to worry about their children and whether or not they would be as loyal and faithful, and new type of sermon came about called â€Å"jeremiads. In jeremiads, earnest preachers scolded parishioners for their waning piety in hope to improve faith. Paradoxically, troubled ministers announced a new formula for church membership in 1662, calling it the â€Å"Half-Way Covenant. † In the Half-Way Covenant, all people could come and participate in the church, even if they fell short of the â€Å"visible-saint† status and were somehow only half conv erted (with the exception of a few extremely hated groups). In the early 1690s, a group of Salem girls claimed to have been bewitched by certain older women. What followed was a hysterical witch-hunt that led to the executions of 20 people (19 of which were hanged, 1 pressed to death) and two dogs. Back in Europe, larger scale witch-hunts were already occurring. Witchcraft hysteria eventually ended in 1693. X. The New England Way of Life Due to the hard New England soil (or lack thereof), New Englanders became great traders. New England was also less ethnically mixed than its neighbors. The climate of New England encouraged diversified agriculture and industry. Black slavery was attempted, but didn’t work. It was unnecessary since New England was made of small farms rather than plantations as down South. Rivers were short and rapid. The Europeans in New England chastised the Indians for â€Å"wasting† the land, and felt a need to clear as much land for use as possible. Fishing became a very popular industry. It is said New England was built on â€Å"God and cod. † XI. The Early Settlers’ Days and Ways Early farmers usually rose at dawn and went to bed at dusk. Few events were done during the night unless they were â€Å"worth the candle. † Life was humble but comfortable, at least in accordance to the surroundings. The people who emigrated from Europe to America were most usually lower middle class citizens looking to have a better future in the New World. Because of the general sameness of class in America, laws against extravagances were sometimes passed, but as time passed, America grew. XII. Makers of America: From African to African-American Africans’ arrival into the New World brought new languages, music, and cuisines to America. Africans worked in the rice fields of South Carolina due to (a) their knowledge of the crop and (b) their resistance to disease (as compared to Indians). The first slaves were men; some eventually gained freedom. By 1740, large groups of African slaves lived together on plantations, where female slaves were expected to perform backbreaking labor and spin, weave, and sew. Most slaves became Christians, though many adopted elements from their native religions. Many African dances led to modern dances (i. e. the Charleston). Christian songs could also be code for the announcement of the arrival of a guide to freedom. Jazz is the most famous example of slave music entering mainstream culture