The Physics of a Diesel Engine Essay -- Energy Automobiles Essays

The Physics of a Diesel Engine The world we live in is surrounded by diesel engines. They are on the freeways, railways, airways, and are one of the leading electricity producers in the world. They are also becoming more popular in automobiles. These engines are efficient and reliable and they are getting very sophisticated. However, the physics behind these engines has not changed. By way of definition, courtesy of Diesel Engine Engineering: [a] diesel engine is an internal combustion engine in which the chemical energy of fuel is transformed into thermal energy of the cylinder charge, in consequence of the self-ignition and combustion of fuel in the engine cylinder after compression of the air charge in the cylinder (p1 Makartchouk). There are basically two types of diesel engines, two-stroke and four-stroke. In a two-stroke engine the piston is forced from the top of the cylinder by the expanding air fuel mixture. Before the piston reaches the bottom of the cylinder the used mixture, (called exhaust), is forced out of the cylinder by the incoming fresh air. The fresh air relies upon a blower, air induction system, to propel it into the combustion chamber. During this time period the piston begins to travel to the top of the cylinder and compress the fresh air sufficient to raise the temperature in the combustion chamber, (area between the top of the cylinder and the cylinder head at top dead center), to 1000-1200 degrees Fahrenheit (p12 Dagel). The fuel is then injected under pressure into the combustion chamber, the air ignites the fuel and the gases begin to expand finishing one cycle. A four-stroke engine begins the same way as the two-stroke with the expanding gases pushing the piston downward, called the ... ...n chamber rises dramatically. The combined fuel and air molecules bounce off one another and since the path of least resistance is the piston, the piston moves downward creating mechanical work. Applying physics to something in everyday use creates a new appreciation for what actually happens when you step on the accelerator pedal or see a truck pulling 40,000 plus pounds up a steep incline. With even a basic study of physics my worldview has changed. I now look at that cold piece of cast iron sitting in an engine compartment on a molecular level. Works Cited Dagel, John F., and Robert N. Brady. Diesel Engine and Fuel System Repair. Ohio: Prentice Hall, 2002. Kirkpatrick, Larry D., and Gerald F. Wheeler. Physics A World View. Florida: Harcourt College Publishers, 2001. Makartchouk, Andrei. Diesel Engine Engineering. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2002.

Social learning perspective and its implications education essay

A critical geographic expedition of Banduras societal larning perspective and its deductions for larning in mainstream schoolroom for the persons who show disputing behavior.1.0 IntroductionAchieving effectual instruction and acquisition in mainstream scenes of students with disputing behavior remains a concern of professionals, research workers and pedagogues. The inquiry ; whether there should be a typical teaching method for aiming scholars with disputing behavior and or particular educational demands which had become a burning issue with the release of The Green Paper on particular educational demands ( SEN ) ( DfEE, 1997 ) every bit good as the Literacy Strategy and students with SEN guidelines ( DfEE, 1998 ) are declarative of the concern that run intoing the acquisition demands of all scholars in current educational scenes airss for learning and professional pattern since inclusion had began to specify the landscape of mainstream schoolroom ( Norwich & A ; Lewis, 2001 ) . This obviously reflects the altering political temper which aspire a more inclusive society. However, there is concern about the achievability of the rule that all kids and immature people are valued as persons, as reflected in the Government ‘s papers Removing Barrier to Achievement ( DfES, 2004 ) , through a common teaching method in mainstream manner. Thus the importance of teaching-learning attacks comes to the bow in finding effectual inclusive patterns particularly for aiming students with disputing behavior in mainstream schoolroom. An accessible scheme and attack to accomplish this has to run into the acquisition demands, and therefore specify the learner rightness of such attack required for the scholars who show disputing behavior in mainstream schoolroom. Bandura ( 1977 ) developed a position that approaches larning as non merely a merchandise of classical and operant conditioning but as being influenced by experimental acquisition. Harmonizing to Bandura ( 1986 ) experimental acquisition takes topographic point when the scholar learns from detecting the actions of a theoretical account and the effects of those actions taking to suppression or disinhibition of his ain action. What this implies for schoolroom pattern is that the scholar ‘s challenge has to be located functionally, appreciated and addressed within a model that contextually interface efficaciously, appropriate interactions between context, object and topic in a learning procedure. In critically measuring Bandura ‘s societal acquisition position and its deduction for larning in mainstream schoolroom for the persons with disputing behavior, this essay aims at researching the value of the societal acquisition position as an attack that can inform effectual inclusive pattern in aiming learner-specific demands in mainstream context. The demand to aim single scholar demands, and at one time achieve inclusive mainstream marks and aims obviates the undertaking that has to be undertaken for the group of scholars with certain conditions and damages that do put barriers to acquisition, necessitating adjustment to be made to accomplish same degree of larning as the normal scholar in order to guarantee that effectual acquisition takes topographic point across board. It is hence important that this essay suggests that within the flight of theories applicable to effectual acquisition, and within the context of mainstream schoolroom, Bandura ‘s societal larning po sition can be an indispensable constituent of any multi-modular intercession in aiming the acquisition demands of the persons with disputing behavior. Therefore, more than of all time before, instruction and the principle that supports the actions that instructors take encompass a broad scope of variables which basically involves larning. How is larning best identified, motivated, achieved, assessed and built upon for the scholar, are all inquiries that proceed with, and warrant the many and changing determinations that constitute instruction, possibly much more so, how it can best be approached in the mainstream schoolroom for the scholar with disputing behavior.1.1 Bandura ‘s Social Learning Perspective an overviewAlbert Bandura is a prima psychologist who had contributed vastly towards the development of many Fieldss of psychological science, and made an outstanding work with his societal acquisition theory. His societal acquisition theory is underpinned by his findings in researching the determiners and mechanisms of experimental larning through analysing the cardinal facets of human acquisition and the leaning of the scholar to pattern their ain behavior on the behavior of the ‘observed other. ‘ Harmonizing to Ormond ( 1999 ) , Social acquisition as a theory concerns with acquisition that occurs within a societal context. The foundational apprehension of the theory is based on the consideration that human existences learn from one another through experimental acquisition, imitation and modeling. Below is Ormond ‘s farther premises as respects to societal larning theory: Learning can happen through people detecting the behavior of others and the result of such behaviors Learning can happen without a alteration in behavior. What this suggests is that even though the Behaviorists had maintained that larning consequences in a lasting alteration in behavior, the societal acquisition position ‘s claim that larning can happen through observation entirely means that larning may non needfully be signified either in public presentation or represented by a alteration in behavior. Cognition is a basic key in larning. Social larning theory is grounded on the reading of human larning from the cognitive index. It suggests a nexus between behaviorist larning theories and cognitive theories. Bandura ‘s societal acquisition position besides suggests the premise that modeling is reinforced by the environment, for case where the theoretical account behavior leads to effects that reinforce it. It is apparent that the behaviors that people learn from others are sometimes ensuing in fulfilling or reenforcing experiences. Bandura ‘s Bobo doll experiment was used to exemplify how vicariously the behavior we learn from others can be reinforced whereby the theoretical account being copied reinforces for a response. The Bobo doll experiment shows a theoretical account kid hitting an hyperbolic doll – the Bobo doll. A group of students were shown the theoretical account being praised for hitting the doll. The consequence was that without being reinforced themselves, the students began to besides hit the Bobo doll. However, in modern-day times, accent on the societal acquisition position have tended to brood on support and penalty, angling more towards cognitive intercessions on acquisition and behavioral alteration. Contemporary attacks to societal larning perspective suggest that ; Support and penalty, even though are non the chief cause of acquisition, do hold an indirect effects on acquisition. Both support and punishment impact on the degree and extent of which the behavior learnt is exhibited by the scholar. And that the scholar ‘s expectancy of a signifier of support cognitively impacts on the procedures of acquisition.2.0 Social Learning and Cognitive proceduresBandura ‘s societal larning perspective implies a figure of cognitive factors ; whereby it proposes a differentiation to be made between larning by observation and larning through imitation of what has been learned. Learning by observation involves cognitive processing during the class of observation and paying attending, ( undertaking is cognitive ) , is critical to experimental acquisition. Likewise, cognitively Bandura ‘s thesis outlines the procedures of larning. Bandura considers factors of outlooks, mutual causing and modeling in the connexions that is being made between capable, object and context in the acquisition procedure.2.1 Behaviours and patterningInstrumentally, the societal acquisition position shows how we can understand behavior as a procedure of larning through modeling, at least in portion. The societal acquisition perspective sees behaviour as being influenced by patterning. In the schoolroom for illustration, students can larn through mathematical presentations. The Bobo doll points to the illustration that aggression for case can be learned through theoretical accounts. Besides, research had shown that kids who are exposed to aggressive theoretical accounts, for case parents who are aggressive or violent, go more aggressive themselves. Then once more, moral thought and behavior that are modelled from a sense of right or incorrect are to a great extent influenced and developed through modeling.3.0 The scholar with Challenging Behaviour and mainstream contextChallenging behavior had been described as that behavior which prevents the engagement of the scholar in appropriate actives and isolates the scholar from equals. It is seen as the behavior that affects the acquisition and operation of other people and that drastically reduces the scholar ‘s chances for full engagement in usual acquisition activities. The scholars with ambitious behaviors are ever doing inordinate demands on both staff resources and other larning support resources ( Harrris et. al. , 1993 ) . Harmonizing to McBrien & A ; Felce ( 1992 ) , disputing behavior can besides be seen as behavior which constitutes a challenge to other people given that it is hard to happen effectual manner of reacting to them. Challenging behaviour shown by the scholar does non intend he or she is in himself or herself the debatable, instead, it is the complex kineticss of interaction between the scholar, the scholar ‘s behavior and the leaner ‘s societal environment. Bandura in his work stated that â€Å" †¦ of the many cues that influence behavior, at any point in clip, none is more common than the actions of others † ( Bandura 1996 ) . The deduction of Bandura ‘s thesis for mainstreaming scholars with disputing behavior in the context of mainstream schoolroom is that the scholar requires a scaffold of equal modeling and contextual designs that blend the acquisition environment with the coveted influences. In sing the importance of teaching-learning attacks in his reappraisal, Wedell ( 2005 ) reported that late, authorities -funded research aimed at happening out if there are cardinal difference in particular demands and educational attacks in general, in the chief concluded, in line with the sentiment of Davis & A ; Florian ( 2004 ) , that the of import thing is to accomplish a teaching method that is inclusive of all scholars. However, effectual schoolroom instruction and acquisition is non merely dependant on the instructor ; his accomplishments, bringing techniques and environment, but every bit, on cognition of the scholar ‘s background and sound grasp of this background cognition by the instructor via resourceful channels. This will enable the instructor weigh what appropriate attacks can be good adopted to aim the learning demands of the varicolored nature of the scholars in mainstream scene including those who show disputing behavior. Inclusion which has become the mainst ream attack to learning and acquisition is a notable ideal. Yet, the trouble is with the quandary it presents as respects practically run intoing the acquisition demands of those cohort of scholars who present disputing behavior and at the same clip meet set mark and recognize common aims within a portfolio of inclusive mainstream schemes and patterns that will non sabotage the acquisition and operation of other scholars in mainstream schoolroom. It is acknowledged, ( ) that despite policy statements and sporadic advanced intercessions in inclusive patterns, mainstream schoolrooms are still fighting to catch up with run intoing the demands of the scholars with behavior challenges and aiming their demands through effectual acquisition attacks. Lewis and Norwich ( 1999 ) had in their work raised the inquiry of diverseness of larning demands in mainstream context. The statement is that larning attack ( Es ) that will fit the diverseness of larning demands in mainstream scenes with curricular outlooks across board are required. Therefore, Lewis and Norwich ( 1999 ) attempted a conceptualisation of diverseness of larning demands as applicable to mainstream scenes and typified three countries of demands as ; scholar alone needs or single demands exceeding demands or demands common merely to some group of scholars, and common needs or needs that cut across all scholars. A teaching method that responds generically to this broad scope of larning demands is advocated for aiming and suiting particular demands scholars including those with disputing behavior in mainstream schoolroom context ( Lewis & A ; Norwich, 1999 ) .4.0 Learning: context and concept – Bandura ‘s Social acquisition Perspective4.1 What is larning?There is no simple reply to the inquiry ; what is larning? Brackenbury ( 2008 ) noted that larning could be consequence of ; Maturation ( nature, heredity ) Experience ( raising, environment ) Cognitive procedures ( thought, intelligence, linguistic communication ) Socio-emotional procedures Interaction between biological, cognitive, societal factors, etc. Gredler ( 2001 ) sees larning as the procedure of acquisition of new accomplishments, cognition, attitudes and values with an result which manifests in the new capablenesss possessed by the scholar. Good and Brophy ( 1990 ) describes larning in footings of the lasting alteration in capacity for public presentation which is acquirable through experience. Learning has besides been approached from a scope of theoretical positions that tend to pattern schemes which enable an apprehension of the ends and outlooks for persons every bit good as groups involved in the acquisition procedure.4.2 Some Theoretical Positions of LearningThe followers are illustrations of theoretical positions outlined by Davis & A ; Florian, ( 2004 ) . Behavioural theoretical accounts ; focuses on what can be observed as larning results based on the rules of support theory in different larning contexts. It considers wholly behaviour as being learned in conformity with the regulations which determines it. Bandura ‘s societal larning perspective agrees with this theoretical account. Constructivists theoretical accounts ; the scholar is seen as active participant in the cognition seeking procedure by doing his or her experience responsive and relevant and acquiring intrinsic satisfaction through acquisition and work outing jobs. Social constructivism ; scholars active function in acquisition is placed within the context of his or her societal groups or community for case, equal forum, schoolroom, school, wherein cognition is reciprocally created through purposeful interactions and valued activities. It has to be good appreciated that a good apprehension of the workings of any one or a combination of these theoretical accounts is important in the instruction and acquisition procedure and possibly more so, in efficaciously using them to the context of the scholars with particular demands like those demoing ambitious behaviors. As observed in Wedell ( 2005 ) , the cardinal component sing rightness of instruction and acquisition attacks is the acknowledgment of the topographic point of the scholar as an active instead than a inactive participant. Therefore, for any learning theory to associate and react to the scholar as an active participant in the instruction and acquisition procedure, it has to take into awareness the inquiry of what determines larning, for who, at what phase, and in what fortunes in order non to besiege the shared and alone larning demands of the scholar, particularly within the wide scenes of inclusive mainstream schoolroom.4.3 Analyzing the societal acquisitio n positionIn an article written by Frank Pajares ( 1997 ) , the societal acquisition perspective draws accent on the influence of anticipations and self-efficacy on behavior and behavioral alteration. It considers patterning or experimental acquisition as analogue to reinforcement. New behavior, particularly behaviours in signifier of aggression, force as seen modelled by parents and in the media, which have had influence on the manner kids act, are being explained with this position. Equally, as a position to acquisition, the societal acquisition construct is critical of behaviorist, psychoanalytic and trait theories of behavior. The societal acquisition construct does non see support as necessary in larning given that it suggests people can larn through merely observation. In line with the construct, behavior can be modelled through anticipations and so maintained or terminated by its effects. The position explains behavioral jobs as being ensuing from low degrees of â€Å" self- efficacy. † Self-efficacy In line with the societal acquisition position, self-efficacy can be seen as assurance towards larning. The impression is that people normally would prosecute in behavior they are more certain of their capableness of put to deathing successfully. What this implies for larning is that the higher the degree of self-efficacy, the more confident the scholar is towards larning. Theoretically frame worked, self-efficacy therefore supports the acquisition procedure given that scholars with high ego efficaciousness would be given to accomplish more being confident performing artists. Many factors are considered to impact the scholar ‘s self-efficacy. Such factors as personal successes and failures, the successes and failures of others and signals or messages received from others like equals are seen as likely to impact self-efficacy. Frank Pajares ( 1997 ) Aboard self-efficacy is the impression of self-regulation, self-instruction, self-monitoring and self-reinforcement. Self-regulation which in societal acquisition construct go on when the person in consideration of his ain thoughts about the rightness or otherwise of certain behaviors chooses actions to accommodate his intent. The several facets of self-regulation include ; self-standards and ends, self observations, self opinion and self reaction. Self-regulation is considered as being an of import technique to larning given that it can be instrumental to self-reward where and when needed behavior is achieved. On the other manus, self-instruction is considered helpful in larning whereby the scholar takes self-instructions that steer his or her behaviour towards accomplishing a end. Self-monitoring and self-reinforcement Harmonizing to the societal acquisition position, the constructs of self-monitoring and self-reinforcement are critical to larning as they are the two ways the scholar can command his or her ain behavior. First the scholar can supervise and detect his or her behavior utilizing markers to foreground the high and low Markss in behavior. Then once more, the scholar can act upon his or her behavior by reenforcing himself or herself or by keep backing such support. However, the societal acquisition theory has been criticised for giving small significance to development, motive and struggle. Ormond ( 1999 )4.4 Assessment and Formulation of Social LearningThe appraisal of societal acquisition is done through affecting the scholars and inquiring them to do statement about their sensed degree of self-efficacy and outlooks and associated behaviors. The scholars ‘ statements of self-efficacy are therefore considered as predictive of their degrees of public presentation. For appraisal, com parings are so made of the efficaciousness outlooks that are obtained before and after intercession in order to observe whether there has been additions or lessenings in scholars ‘ self-efficacy. The societal acquisition perspective considers the scholars ‘ behavior challenges as end point from factors such as ; exposure to theoretical accounts exposing negative behavior, negative anticipations and negative self-conceptions, take downing degrees of self-efficacy or inefficaciousness, and negative self-evaluations. Anxiety in this context is explained as ensuing from perceived inefficaciousness, outlooks of non being able to get by with baleful state of affairss or people. Therefore, with addition in self-efficacy come assurance and less anxiousness and ability to get by with menaces from state of affairss and people. Normally, experience of low degrees of self-efficacy may be observed with scholars demoing behavior challenges. In practical footings, what this means for schoolroom larning context is that their feelings of inability to execute consequences in scoured assurance, and falling below desired behavior. This frustrating self-doubt leads such scholars to reason that they may be missing in the necessary resources or accomplishments required to accomplish desirable public presentation. It is hence the purpose of societal larning intercessions to convey to the larning context an addition in the scholars ‘ self-efficacy ; assurance and ability to aim and run into the coveted ends. And it is through intercessions patterning, self-instructional statements, self-reinforcement, etc that self-efficacy can be changed.5.0 Social larning perspective and Classroom InterventionsIncreasingly, researches had informed the sentiment that successful schoolroom public presentation may depend, in portion , on effectual acquisition attacks, and that a acquisition trouble is non merely a fixed feature of the scholar, but partially determined by the acquisition context ( Frederickson and Cline, 2006 ) . The societal acquisition intercession aims at incorporating topic, object and context to accomplish addition in the scholars ‘ ; both developments in the cognitive and behavioral competences. Its two chief tools of intercessions are using modeling and altering perceived self-efficacy of the scholar.5.1 ModelingModelling is applied to enable the scholar inhibit or disinhibit public presentation and to ease public presentation as desired in term of appropriate or inappropriate. Through observation of appropriate theoretical accounts, scholars can be cued to larn to want accomplishments and behaviors. By following theoretical accounts that can convey the right messages of success and show a sequence of appropriate actions. Learners can larn both through cognitive modeling and or by d irect instructions. However, the instructor will be required to verbalize their problem-solving processs for the scholar to larn by cognitive modeling. As an intercession scheme, modeling is characterized by the undermentioned cues: Progressive phases ( it is structured measure by measure ) Feedbacks ( feedbacks are basically incorporated ) Clarity ( it has to be shown clearly and be easy understood ) Consistency ( the scholar rehearses his behavior until satisfactory degrees of competency are reached ) The instructor stands significantly as a theoretical account for the scholar. The instructor can bring on consistence by showing the desirable theoretical account behavior to the scholars to enable the scholars imitate the needed behavior until a satisfactory degree of competency is achieved. Feedback remarks from the instructor are besides necessary to carry through the learning procedure of patterning every bit much as supports of the attempts the scholar is doing, and promoting the scholar to utilize positive self-statements in order to accomplish a high motive for the acquisition undertaking. Peer modeling is every bit of import as a cardinal tool and effectual manner of behavioral modeling in larning. When scholars observe their equals get the hanging jobs they tend to pattern them if they are symbolically represented as successful. This goes to state hence that theoretical accounts that can efficaciously be an influence on equals should hold the features of being presented as r ealistic, conveying trust, be converting and earn sufficient repute amongst other equals.5.1.1 Conditionss required for ModelingBandura ( 1977 ) recognized that certain conditions are prerequisite for effectual modeling. These conditions are considered necessary because they have to be present before a scholar can successfully pattern the behavior of another – the theoretical account. These four conditions as outlined by Bandura include ( Ormond 1999 ) : Attention: attending to the theoretical account is required from the scholar. This presuppose, possibly that the theoretical account has to keep some considerable involvement for the scholar. Attention plays a critical function in larning and is frequently influenced by the outlook of support. Retention: the scholar has to be able to do clear observation and be able to remember and retrieve the behavior which has been modelled. Using dry run as a technique of increasing ability of keeping of observations can be encouraged. Motor reproduction: thirdly is the ability of the scholar to perchance retroflex the modelled behavior. However, the scholar ‘s developmental degree has to be matched with the complex nature of any undertaking for effectual modeling to happen. Motivation: it is necessary that the scholar has to be sufficiently motivated for effectual modeling to happen. There has to be sufficient evidences for the scholar to use his erudite undertaking. Learners have to hold application for showing what they have learnt. Even though these are predisposing factors or conditions for effectual modeling, it has to be noted that these conditions varies among single scholars and hence predicate same behavior albeit with fluctuations in bring forthing such coveted behavior.5.1.2 The impact of Modeling on behaviorModeling can impacts behaviour in many ways. Through modeling, new behaviors are learnt and antecedently learned behaviors are reinforced and increased in frequence of happening. Modeling can besides be used as a larning tool to deter or promote antecedently prohibited behavior, every bit good that undertaking are non set or required that are beyond the leaner ‘s ability, and or developmental capacity to get by. Encouraging self-reg ulation techniques that can supply an effectual method for bettering the scholar ‘s behavior is necessary to accomplish a good degree of assurance in keeping the coveted behavioral mark. The outlook of support influences cognitive procedures that promote larning. As a consequence of being reinforced, people form outlooks about the effects that future behaviors are likely to convey. The scholar needs to be cognizant of the appropriate response and support that can convey approximately assurance and increase self-efficacy. The instructor can therefore promote the publicity of such self-efficacy by constructing a channel for the scholars to have assurance lifting messages and props through detecting others successes and being active in sing success on their ain advancement.6.0 Evaluation in societal acquisition positionEvaluation from this perspective chiefly involves placing and entering alterations in sensed self-efficacy following intercession, i.e. from lower to higher degree s of efficaciousness, sufficient to convey about important behavioral alteration. The effectivity of experimental acquisition and modeling can besides be evaluated. Changes in self-efficacy should be important adequate for scholars to experience that they have achieved a sense of personal control and competency. As a consequence they should now be able to get and use get bying accomplishments with regard to job behavior.7.0 Educational deductions of Social Learning PerspectiveIn schoolroom scenes, the societal acquisition attack can impact on larning in many ways. A sum-up of the deductions of the societal acquisition position for the scholar are given below ; Learners frequently learn through detecting other people Clear differentiation between behaviors and their effects can efficaciously ensue to increase in coveted behavior from the leaner and lessenings in the unwanted behavior. In the schoolroom, affecting the scholars in treatment on the wagess for and effects of coveted and the unwanted behaviors can be used to ease the acquisition procedure. Through modeling can be an effectual option to defining by supplying a quicker and more easy antiphonal agencies for learning new behavior. However, to accomplish effectual larning through modeling, the four indispensable conditions must be ; attending, keeping, motor reproduction, and motive.8.0 DecisionBandura ‘s societal acquisition position has application for larning in mainstream schoolroom for the persons with disputing behavior. Although a discrepancy of the traditional behaviorist position on acquisition and development, it furthered the pertinence of the rules of conditioning and support elaborated earlier by Skinner, conveying a more contextual attack to acquisition by observation and imitation. Bandura ‘s societal larning perspective nowadayss a thesis that demonstrates that patterning is the footing of the development of a broad spectrum of behavior in kids. What implications this thesis has for larning is that the scholar can larn accomplishments and behavior merely by watching and listening to others around them. Then once more, that through the bureau of patterning the scholar can larn to larn or unlearn new and old behavior severally. Therefore, in sing the acquisition intercessions appropriate for the scholars in inclusive mainstream schoolroom, patterning can be an appropriate attack to a learning procedure designed to aim their acquisition demands. Bandura ‘s societal larning perspective possibly, might be an indispensible constituent of intercessions in aiming the acquisition demands of this group of scholars if inclusive rules are to be achieved and all scholars every bit supported in this context.

Diwali – Festival of Lights

Diwali  (also spelled  Devali  in certain regions) or  Deepavali,[1]  popularly known as the â€Å"festival of lights†, is an important five-day festival in  Hinduism,Jainism, and  Sikhism, occurring between mid-October and mid-November. For Hindus, Diwali is one of the most important festivals of the year and is celebrated in families by performing traditional activities together in their homes. Deepavali is an official holiday in  India,[2]  Nepal,  Sri Lanka,  Myanmar,Mauritius,  Guyana,  Trinidad & Tobago,  Suriname,  Malaysia,  Singapore,[3]  and  Fiji. The name â€Å"Diwali† is a contraction of â€Å"Deepavali† (Sanskrit:  Dipavali), which translates into â€Å"row of lamps†. [4]  Diwali involves the lighting of small clay lamps (diyas  or  dipas) in  Sanskrit:   ) filled with oil to signify the triumph of good over evil. During Diwali, all the celebrants wear new clothes and share sweets and snacks wit h family members and friends. Most Indian business communities begin the financial year on the first day of Diwali. Diwali commemorates the return of  Lord Rama, along with  Sita  and  Lakshman, from his fourteen-year-long exile and vanquishing the demon-king  Ravana.In joyous celebration of the return of their king, the people of  Ayodhya, the Capital of Rama, illuminated the kingdom with earthen  diyas  (oil lamps) and burst firecrackers. [5] In Jainism, Diwali marks the attainment of  moksha  or  nirvana  by  Mahavira  in 527 BC. [6][7]  In Sikhism,  Deepavali  commemorates the return of  Guru Har Gobind Ji  to  Amritsar  after freeing 52 Hindu kings imprisoned in Fort  Gwalior  by defeating Emperor  Jahangir; the people lit candles and diyas to celebrate his return. This is the reason Sikhs also refer to Deepavali as  Bandi Chhorh Divas, â€Å"the day of release of detainees†.The festival starts with  Dhanteras  on whi ch most Indian business communities begin their financial year. The second day of the festival,  Naraka Chaturdasi, marks the vanquishing of the demon  Naraka  by  Lord Krishna  and his wife  Satyabhama. Amavasya, the third day of Deepawali, marks the worship ofLakshmi, the goddess of wealth in her most benevolent mood, fulfilling the wishes of her devotees. Amavasya also tells the story of Lord  Vishnu, who in his dwarf incarnation vanquished the  Bali, and banished him to  Patala.It is on the fourth day of Deepawali,  Kartika Shudda Padyami, that Bali went to  patalaand took the reins of his new kingdom in there. The fifth day is referred to as  Yama Dvitiya  (also called  Bhai Dooj), and on this day sisters invite their brothers to their homes. ————————————————- Spiritual significance In each legend, myth and story of Deepawali lies the signi ficance of the victory of good over evil; and it is with each Deepawali and the lights that illuminate our homes and hearts, that this simple truth finds new reason and hope.From darkness into light — the light that empowers us to commit ourselves to good deeds, that which brings us closer to divinity. During Diwali, lights illuminate every corner of India and the scent of incense sticks hangs in the air, mingled with the sounds of fire-crackers, joy, togetherness and hope. Diwali is celebrated around the globe. Outside India, it is more than a Hindu festival, it's a celebration of South-Asian identities. 5] While Deepavali is popularly known as the â€Å"festival of lights†, the most significant spiritual meaning is â€Å"the awareness of the inner light†. Central to Hindu philosophy is the assertion that there is something beyond the physical body and mind which is pure, infinite, and eternal, called the  Atman. The celebration of Deepavali as the â€Å"vic tory of good over evil†, refers to the light of higher knowledge dispelling all ignorance, the ignorance that masks one's true nature, not as the body, but as the unchanging, infinite,  immanent  and  transcendent  reality.With this awakening comes compassion and the awareness of the oneness of all things (higher knowledge). This brings  ananda  (joy or peace). Just as we celebrate the birth of our physical being, Deepavali is the celebration of this Inner Light. While the story behind Deepavali and the manner of celebration varies from region to region (festive fireworks, worship, lights, sharing of sweets), the essence is the same – to rejoice in the Inner Light (Atman) or the underlying Reality of all things (Brahman). Diwali – Festival of Lights Diwali  (also spelled  Devali  in certain regions) or  Deepavali,[1]  popularly known as the â€Å"festival of lights†, is an important five-day festival in  Hinduism,Jainism, and  Sikhism, occurring between mid-October and mid-November. For Hindus, Diwali is one of the most important festivals of the year and is celebrated in families by performing traditional activities together in their homes. Deepavali is an official holiday in  India,[2]  Nepal,  Sri Lanka,  Myanmar,Mauritius,  Guyana,  Trinidad & Tobago,  Suriname,  Malaysia,  Singapore,[3]  and  Fiji. The name â€Å"Diwali† is a contraction of â€Å"Deepavali† (Sanskrit:  Dipavali), which translates into â€Å"row of lamps†. [4]  Diwali involves the lighting of small clay lamps (diyas  or  dipas) in  Sanskrit:   ) filled with oil to signify the triumph of good over evil. During Diwali, all the celebrants wear new clothes and share sweets and snacks wit h family members and friends. Most Indian business communities begin the financial year on the first day of Diwali. Diwali commemorates the return of  Lord Rama, along with  Sita  and  Lakshman, from his fourteen-year-long exile and vanquishing the demon-king  Ravana.In joyous celebration of the return of their king, the people of  Ayodhya, the Capital of Rama, illuminated the kingdom with earthen  diyas  (oil lamps) and burst firecrackers. [5] In Jainism, Diwali marks the attainment of  moksha  or  nirvana  by  Mahavira  in 527 BC. [6][7]  In Sikhism,  Deepavali  commemorates the return of  Guru Har Gobind Ji  to  Amritsar  after freeing 52 Hindu kings imprisoned in Fort  Gwalior  by defeating Emperor  Jahangir; the people lit candles and diyas to celebrate his return. This is the reason Sikhs also refer to Deepavali as  Bandi Chhorh Divas, â€Å"the day of release of detainees†.The festival starts with  Dhanteras  on whi ch most Indian business communities begin their financial year. The second day of the festival,  Naraka Chaturdasi, marks the vanquishing of the demon  Naraka  by  Lord Krishna  and his wife  Satyabhama. Amavasya, the third day of Deepawali, marks the worship ofLakshmi, the goddess of wealth in her most benevolent mood, fulfilling the wishes of her devotees. Amavasya also tells the story of Lord  Vishnu, who in his dwarf incarnation vanquished the  Bali, and banished him to  Patala.It is on the fourth day of Deepawali,  Kartika Shudda Padyami, that Bali went to  patalaand took the reins of his new kingdom in there. The fifth day is referred to as  Yama Dvitiya  (also called  Bhai Dooj), and on this day sisters invite their brothers to their homes. ————————————————- Spiritual significance In each legend, myth and story of Deepawali lies the signi ficance of the victory of good over evil; and it is with each Deepawali and the lights that illuminate our homes and hearts, that this simple truth finds new reason and hope.From darkness into light — the light that empowers us to commit ourselves to good deeds, that which brings us closer to divinity. During Diwali, lights illuminate every corner of India and the scent of incense sticks hangs in the air, mingled with the sounds of fire-crackers, joy, togetherness and hope. Diwali is celebrated around the globe. Outside India, it is more than a Hindu festival, it's a celebration of South-Asian identities. 5] While Deepavali is popularly known as the â€Å"festival of lights†, the most significant spiritual meaning is â€Å"the awareness of the inner light†. Central to Hindu philosophy is the assertion that there is something beyond the physical body and mind which is pure, infinite, and eternal, called the  Atman. The celebration of Deepavali as the â€Å"vic tory of good over evil†, refers to the light of higher knowledge dispelling all ignorance, the ignorance that masks one's true nature, not as the body, but as the unchanging, infinite,  immanent  and  transcendent  reality.With this awakening comes compassion and the awareness of the oneness of all things (higher knowledge). This brings  ananda  (joy or peace). Just as we celebrate the birth of our physical being, Deepavali is the celebration of this Inner Light. While the story behind Deepavali and the manner of celebration varies from region to region (festive fireworks, worship, lights, sharing of sweets), the essence is the same – to rejoice in the Inner Light (Atman) or the underlying Reality of all things (Brahman).

A God Divided: Understanding the Differences Between Islam, Christianity and Judaism Essay

Christianity, Islam and Judaism, are the world’s greatest monotheist faiths. These faiths have some similarities and differences. In this paper analysis of what is common amongst Islam, Judaism and Christianity is analyzed at an in-depth level. Islam is the world’s largest religion after Christianity. It is a monotheistic faith that traces its roots in the Middle East. Many of its practices and beliefs are similarity with Christianity and Judaism. Judaism, Islam and Christianity, are referred collectively as â€Å"Abrahamic religion† since their history could be traced to God’s covenant with Abraham in the Hebrews Bible. It is believed that Prophet Muhammad met Christians and Jews in his lifetime and as such Islam has come into contact with similar monotheistic religions throughout its history (Paterson 216). The following paragraphs give the differences and similarities between Islam, Christianity and Judaism. It gives a detailed analysis of statistics, h istory, religious beliefs and origin of the greatest monotheistic faiths. The adherents of Christianity, Judaism and Islam respectively are 2billion Christians, 14 million Jews and over one billion Muslims. Compared to other faiths in the world, Christianity is the largest faith, then Islam and Judaism ranks 12 amongst world faiths. The major concentration of Islam is South East Asia and Middle East. Judaism concentration is in America, Europe and Israel. Christianity has a fast growth in Africa, Europe, North and South America. Islam’s sacred text is the Koran, for the Jews it is the bible and the Christians it is the Jewish bible and the New Testament. Other written authorities by these faiths are: hadith for the Muslims, Midrash, Talmud and Responsa for the Jews. The Christians consider especially the Catholics consider church councils, papal decrees, church fathers as having written authority. The three religions both have religious law (Catherwood 192). For the Christians, it is the Canon law, for Muslim it is the sharia law, for Jews it is the Halakhah. Another similarity amongst the three faiths is the presence of the clergy. For the Muslims the clergy is made up of imams, the Jews have rabbis and the Christian’s clergy comprises of the priests, ministers, bishops and pastors. The three faiths both have a house of worship. The Jews worship at the synagogue, the Muslims at the mosque and Christians at the church, cathedral or chapel. Christianity, Islam and Judaism also have a similarity in the sense that they have a specific day of worship. Christians worship on Sunday, Muslim on Friday and Jews on Saturday. For church and state, Islam the religion is integrated to the state while, for Christianity and Judaism, it is separate. For the origin and history of these faiths, Islam was founded in 622 CE, Christianity in c. 33 CE and the dates for beginning of Judaism are still unknown. Judaism and Christianity were founded in Palestine while Islam was founded in Saudi Arabia. Both faiths had founders. The founder of Christianity is Jesus, for Islam it is Muhammad and for Judaism it is Moses or Abraham. Both faiths have an original language. The original language of Islam was Arabic, for Judaism it was Hebrew and for Christianity, it was Aramaic and Greek. Both faiths had an early expansion plan. For Islam, in 12 years, the entire Arabic Peninsula had Islam and in a century, Islamism stretched throughout the Atlantic to China. Judaism had small expansion that was limited to the Palestine regions only. In 60 years, Christianity had expanded and had churches in cities in Turkey, Rome, Palestine and Greek; by the 4th century their expansion was throughout the entire Roman Empire. Another similarity amongst the three faiths is the major splits aspects. In Islam, the split was in 650 CE amongst the Shia and Sunni. For Judaism, in the 1800s CE the split was amongst the Reform and Orthodox. Amongst the Christians, the splits were two in1054 CE amongst the catholic and orthodox and in1500s CE amongst the catholic and Protestants. Similarity could also be made on the religious beliefs amongst Christians, Islam and Judaism. For Islam and Judaism, they are strictly monotheist while Christians are Trinitarian monotheist (David 37). Another common characteristic in the belief system of the three faiths is the ultimate reality where Christianity, Judaism and Islam have one God. The three faiths have names for God. Muslims refer to Him as Allah which is Arabic for God. Jews refer to Him as Yahweh and Elohim while Christians refer to him as the holy trinity and Yahweh. The three faiths both believe in other spiritual beings like for the Islam, they have demons, angels and jinn. The Jews and Christians have demons and angels. Another common characteristic of the three faiths religious beliefs are the revered humans. The Shia Muslims have prophets and imams while the Jews have prophets. The Christians have saints and church fathers. The religious views of the three faiths on the Jesus Christ’s identity are different and similar in some way. The Muslim believes that He is God’s true prophet whose message has been corrupted. The Jews consider him a false prophet while the Christians believe he is the son of God, the world’s savior and God incarnate. The Christians and Muslims believe the birth of Jesus was a virgin birth while the Jew believes it was just a normal birth. The Christians and Jews believe that Jesus died by crucifixion on the cross while the Muslims believe He did not die but ascended into heaven during crucifixion. On the resurrection of Jesus, the Muslims and Jews denied it while the Christians affirm it. On the second coming of Jesus, the Muslims and Christians affirmed it while the Jews deny it. The three faiths also have a similarity in terms of divine revelation where the Muslims believe it is through Muhammad as written in the Quran. The Jews believe through prophets as written in the bible and the Christians through prophets and Jesus as written in the bible. Another similarity of the three faiths in religious beliefs is their views on the sacred text. The Christians and the Muslims believe that the sacred text is inspired, and it is the literal word of God and some believe inerrant in original languages. For Judaism, the views vary. The three faiths also have a similarity on human nature. The Jews and Muslims believe on the equal ability for humans to do right or evil while the Christians believe on the original sin from Adam on the tendency towards evil. Another outstanding similarity amongst the three faiths is the religious belief on means of salvation. They all believe that means to salvation is the through righteous deeds. However, some Christians believe in sacraments while the Protestants believe the means to salvation is through faith only (David 307). They also have a similarity on God’s role in salvation. The Muslims and Christians believe it is the predestination while the Jews believe it is the divine revelation and forgiveness. The religious belief of Christians and Muslims on the good afterlife is similar as they believe in eternal paradise while the Jews views vary as it is either no afterlife or heaven. On bad afterlife, Christians and Muslim believe in eternal hell. For Catholics, they believe in temporary purgatory. The views of Jews on the bad afterlife vary from, reincarnation, eternal Gehenna or no afterlife. The view of the three faiths on fellow Abrahamic religions is similar and positive. The Muslims bel ieve that Christians and Jews are people of the book and are respected but have partial revelations and wrong beliefs. The Jews believe that Christianity and Islam are false interpretation of Judaism. Christians, on the other hand, believe that Islamism is a false religion and Judaism has false interpretation but is a true religion. Both Christians and Muslims believe in the presence of the clergy. The Muslim clergy is made up of imams while that of Christians comprises of bishops, ministers, priests and pastors. Both religions have a house of worship. Muslims worship at the mosque while Christians worship in a church, chapel or cathedral. Both Muslims and Christians have a specific day set aside for worship (Novak, 2001). Most Christians worship on Sunday or Saturday, while the Islamic day of worship is Friday. The Islamic religion is integrated to the state while that of Christianity is separate. Muhammad is believed to be the founder of the Islamic religion while the founder of Christianity is Jesus. The original language used by Muslims was Arabic and that of Christians was Aramaic and Greek. The two religions concur on the perspective of human nature whereby Muslims believe in the equal ability for humans to do right or evil while the Christians believe on the original sin from Adam on the trend towards evi l. Islam and Christianity have specific religious beliefs that are different. Muslims are strictly monotheist while Christians are Trinitarian monotheist. The two religions have a common feature in the belief system as evidenced by their ultimate reality and worship for one supernatural being-God. The only difference is the name they use for God. The Muslim name for God is Allah which is Arabic for God and that of Christians is the Holy Trinity or Yahweh. Another similarity of the two religions in religious beliefs is their views on the sacred text. The Christians and the Muslims believe that the sacred text is inspired, and it is the truthful word of God and some believe inerrant in original languages Another outstanding similarity amongst the Christians, Muslims and Jews is rituals. All the three faiths conduct rituals to fit in their faiths. In Christianity, amongst the Catholics, there is the sacrament, which includes the Holy Eucharist and Baptism. In Roman Catholicism, other rituals are included like: Confirmation, Penance, Holy Orders, Marriages and Anointment of the sick. Prayer is a part of the faith too. In Islamism, there are five fundamental rituals considered as the pillars of Islam. They include the Shaddah which is the faith profession, salat which is five times daily prayer, zakat which is alms giving, sawm which is fasting in Ramadan and hajj that is the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Jewish rituals include the circumcision of new born males, bar mitzvah that is a ceremony celebrating the adulthood of Jewish boys and shabat which is Sabbath observation. The religious views of the three faiths on the Jesus Christ’s identity are different and similar in some way. The Muslim believes that He is God’s true prophet whose message has been corrupted (Catherwood 192). The Jews consider him a false prophet while the Christians believe he is the son of God, the world’s savior and God incarnate. The Christians and Muslims believe the birth of Jesus was a virgin birth while the Jew believes it was just a normal birth. The Christians and Jews believe that Jesus died by crucifixion on the cross while the Muslims believe He did not die but ascended into heaven during crucifixion. On the resurrection of Jesus, the Muslims and Jews denied it while the Christians affirm it. On the second coming of Jesus, the Muslims and Christians affirmed it while the Jews deny it. The three faiths also have a similarity in terms of divine revelation where the Muslims believe it is through Muhammad as written in the Quran. The Jews believe through prophets as written in the bible and the Christians through prophets and Jesus as written in the bible. In conclusion, most believers in the current world still have no precise basis for their beliefs. It is important for both Muslims and Christians to have sound knowledge and perspectives in their beliefs. This is because there have been many attempts to redefine religion to fit in the current social agendas. References Catherwood, Christopher. A God Divided: Understanding the Differences Between Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Eastbourne: David C Cook, 2007. Liepert, David. Muslim, Christian, and Jew: Finding a Path to Peace Our Faiths Can Share. Nottingham: Faith of Life Publishing, 2010. Paterson, Andrea C. Three Monotheistic Faiths – Judaism, Christianity, Islam: An Analysis and Brief History. New York: AuthorHouse, 2009. Source document

Key Aspects of Warfare Logistics since World War II Assignment

Key Aspects of Warfare Logistics since World War II - Assignment Example The Second World War built up the backdrop of the largest logistics operations. The war involved thousands of personnel, hundreds of ships and supplies of force in terms of millions of tons (Langford, 2007). To exercise this massive operation logistically, planners used resupply throughput and supply point operations which included rear stockpiling of supplies at depots, transporting them to the units and moving them to the forward depots. In the month of August and September 1944, the forces started transporting food, medical supplies, ammunition, fuel, barrier materials and equipment to units quickly by road, rail and air. Ammunition and petroleum occupied half of the daily supplies and were indeed a real requirement (Johnson, 2006). Ammunition was the hardest supply on the battlefield because of its different configurations and types. Eventually, the problem solved by the army by combating the supply rate and establishing the required supply rate. Combat supply rate is the amount of ammunition the system can support whereas the required supply rate is the number of ammunition a commander requires for an operation (Gudehus, 2012). September 1944, 1st and 3rd armies experienced critical fuel problems due to the shortage of transportation. They built the pipeline to transport petroleum thus solving the problem of fuel shortages. Increased consumption and lack of truck transportation were the principal cause of petroleum shortages (Gudehus, 2012). Clothing problems involved everything from production to development and design to transportation problems. Also, blankets lacked in the needs of prisoners of war, the civilian population and French forces. There was a lack of blankets in the winter of 1944 (Gudehus, 2012). Second World War was an ongoing process of experimentation and initiatives to try and fit the correct logistic system with the right situation. Whenever logistician confronted roadblocks at a strategic level, they overcame them as fast as possible. Mulberries served as expedient piers at the operational level (Langford, 2007).  Ã‚  

Explain and analyse the conflicts between Sociological theories of Essay

Explain and analyse the conflicts between Sociological theories of Disability and Chronic Illness - Essay Example Parsons maintains that the notion of health is specifically significant in any society because of the value system of the societies, which underline self-autonomy and individual accomplishment, and the advanced level of demarcation in its social structure. Parsons (1975) proposes that disability and illness is dysfunctional to the social system for the reason that it hampers individuals and debilitates their successful fulfilment of social roles. He claims that society perceives disability and illness as forms of deviance that have to be regulated since they create difficulties for the individual and for the larger society. In UK, people suffering from chronic illnesses and disabilities also face problems like in other societies. The social system of the society is somehow in disadvantage because of disabled and chronically diseased people (Gouldner 1973). Parsons (1975) argues that individuals who are disabled or ill are permitted to have particular immunities and opportunities denied to other forms of social deviance. Disability studies have a political obligation to materialist social model standpoints that identify the centrality of disability as oppression, created through social structures and systems (Abberley, 1987).   Whereas medical sociology favours interpretive viewpoints that facilitate a focus on micro-social interactions.   It remains entrenched in and is largely dedicated to a notion of disability as social deviance (Bury 1997, Williams 2001). Yet simultaneously, these individuals get hold of particular responsibilities, indicating that the individual who takes in the ‘sick role’ has to address four traditional expectations and responsibilities: the sick individual is excused from normal social role obligations; the sick individual is not held accountable for the disability or illness and cannot become healthy merely by an act of determination; the

Using data for Sainsburys plc, critically evaluate the relative Essay

Using data for Sainsburys plc, critically evaluate the relative strengths and weaknesses of internal performance measurement techniques and those relying on external performance measures - Essay Example In its specifics, the graph below depicts the trend of MVA for the company. Writing on the variable for critiquing MVA of companies, Baum , Sarver and Strickland (2004) emphasized the need for the MVA to increase at an even rate with the market value of the company. Rightly so, it can be said that for most of the years, Sainsbury’s MVA has been directly proportional to its market value, which is a major strength for the company. The reason this is an important variable is that when MVA is not proportional to market value, it exposes the company to much external deficit. On the other hand, Bender (2012) also mentioned that it is very important for companies to have a steady growth rate in their MVA. This is a major weakness with Sainsbury as the company has been highly inconsistent with its MVA. Apart from the inconsistency, the rate has been declining sharply since 2009. This is a major weakness for the company as it suggests that the company is not income resourceful when the capital input from investors is taken out. The table below summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of Sainsbury’s MVA. On the second external performance measure which is total shareholder return (TSR), Bender (2012) explained that TSR is calculated by dividing the sum of change in stock price an dividends paid by beginning stock price. The relevance of TSR as an external performance measure is that it highlights the returns that shareholders make from investing in stocks. To have a perfect critique of the TSR of Sainsbury, it is important to relate the calculated TSR to the share price and dividend per share. This is because according to Stern (2011, p. 5), â€Å"firms with high retention ratios (low payout ratios) generally have higher growth rates in earnings than firms with lower retention ratios (higher payout ratios).† In the figure below, the share price, dividend per share and calculated TSR of Sainsbury since 2009 are compared. From the